Skip to main content

Biodiversity Conservation in the REDD

Abstract

Deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics is a major source of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The tropics also harbour more than half the world's threatened species, raising the possibility that reducing GHG emissions by curtailing tropical deforestation could provide substantial co-benefits for biodiversity conservation. Here we explore the potential for such co-benefits in Indonesia, a leading source of GHG emissions from land cover and land use change, and among the most species-rich countries in the world. We show that focal ecosystems for interventions to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in Indonesia do not coincide with areas supporting the most species-rich communities or highest concentration of threatened species. We argue that inherent trade-offs among ecosystems in emission reduction potential, opportunity cost of foregone development and biodiversity values will require a regulatory framework to balance emission reduction interventions with biodiversity co-benefit targets. We discuss how such a regulatory framework might function, and caution that pursuing emission reduction strategies without such a framework may undermine, not enhance, long-term prospects for biodiversity conservation in the tropics.

Introduction

Carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation contribute 12-20% of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions annually [1, 2], primarily from the tropics [3]. Tropical countries also harbour over half (51.1%) of the world's 48,170 threatened species [4], raising the possibility that reducing GHG emissions by curtailing tropical deforestation might also provide valuable co-benefits for biodiversity conservation [5]. Here we explore potential biodiversity impacts of anticipated emission reduction strategies in Indonesia, the world's third largest source of GHG emissions [6] and among the most species-rich countries in the world. We address calls in this journal [7, 8] and elsewhere [9–11] for a stronger regulatory framework governing emission reduction strategies in forests to ensure that biodiversity co-benefits are achieved. We caution that in Indonesia and other tropical countries, pursuing emission reduction strategies in forests without such a framework may worsen, not enhance, long-term biodiversity conservation.

The Reducing Emissions from forest Degradation and Deforestation (REDD) scheme of the post-Kyoto UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) treaty seeks to involve developing countries in global GHG reduction efforts by creating financial incentives to improve forest management and protection [12]. Under REDD, and its derivative REDD+, which recognizes forest carbon stock enhancements (sequestration) from improved conservation and sustainable management of forests, developing countries that reduce forest based emissions below an established 'business as usual' projection will be rewarded through payments from donor funds or market sale of emission reduction credits.

REDD clearly provides an opportunity for biodiverse, carbon-rich tropical countries to protect threatened biodiversity as a co-benefit of maintaining forests and the carbon they store [11, 13]. However, it remains unclear how biodiversity provisions will be included within REDD, raising questions about the extent to which it will improve biodiversity conservation over the long-term [5, 14, 15]. Estimated terrestrial carbon and biodiversity are positively correlated globally [11], but this pattern does not necessarily hold at sub-national scales where REDD will typically be implemented. This raises concern that preferential targeting of carbon-rich ecosystems may intensify pressures on relatively carbon-poor ecosystems that nevertheless support equal or greater levels of biodiversity [15–17].

Discussion

REDD in Indonesia

Indonesia, where REDD will be pursued as a set of sub-national programs, illustrates the need for explicit biodiversity provisions to ensure that biodiversity co-benefits are achieved, and unanticipated negative outcomes are avoided.

Indonesia is a rapidly growing developing country, with economic growth of 4.5-6.3% annually over the past three years [18] due in part to expanding natural resource industries such as oil palm, fiber plantations and pulp. Continued growth of these sectors is central to government plans to expand exports and create jobs. The Ministry of Forestry recently announced a 10-year plan to develop nine million ha of fiber plantations to supply a two-fold expansion of pulp and paper capacity [19]. Similarly, up to 10 million ha of new oil palm plantations are projected for development by 2020 to meet growing demand for palm oil derived products [20, 21]. Together, these industries will require an estimated 19 million ha of land for new plantations over the next 10 years.

Plantation expansion notwithstanding, Indonesia has also made voluntary commitments to reduce emissions by 26% by 2020, or up to 41% if financial support is forthcoming from the international community [22]. Such commitments have drawn significant attention, including a recent offer from Norway of US$1 billion to Indonesia for assistance with implementing REDD [23], and up to 45 REDD projects under development as of early 2010 [24, 25].

Sources of forest based emissions in Indonesia

Approximately 85% of Indonesia's estimated 3.01 Gt CO2 annual emissions in 2005 originated from deforestation and degradation [6]. The main sources of these emissions are lowland dipterocarp forests on well-drained mineral soils and peat swamp forest on water-logged peatlands, with estimated original extent of c. 128.1 million ha and c. 20.1 million ha, respectively (Table 1). Estimated aboveground carbon is similar in forests on mineral soils and peat (211 ± 55 vs. 230 ± 66 t C ha-1, respectively, mean ± SD; Table 1, see Additional File 1: Datafile_1.xls for original data). However, belowground carbon stocks differ markedly, with up to c. 20 times more carbon in the un-decomposed organic matter of peat compared to mineral soils (137 ± 26 vs 2425 ± 726 t C ha-1; Table 1). Total carbon stocks are thus, on average, eight times higher in lowland forests on peat than on mineral soils, with corresponding higher total estimated GHG emissions arising from their conversion (Table 1).

Table 1 Physical attributes and emission estimates for lowland tropical forest (<500 m a.s.l.) on peat and mineral substrates in Indonesia

Historically, deforestation rates on peat were much lower than on mineral soils, reflecting higher costs, lower yield and technological challenges of developing peatlands [62]. From 1985-1997, relative losses of lowland forest on mineral soils in Sumatra and Kalimantan were nearly three times higher than forests on the coastal alluvial plains dominated by peat (61% vs 24% in Sumatra; 58% vs 23% in Kalimantan; data from [63]).

Increased use of technology, however, such as excavators, coupled with expanding trade and rising demand for land have stimulated large-scale drainage of forested peatlands for transmigration projects and agricultural development [64–66]. Drainage and resulting oxidation of carbon-dense peat, combined with annual fires [60, 61], made peat the source of nearly half (45%, 1.35 Gt CO2 yr-1) of Indonesia's annual emissions, and 3% of global emissions, in 2005 (Table 1; [6, 67]). Further, destructive synergies with extreme drought linked to El Nino Southern Oscillation increase risk of catastrophic fires, such as the 1997-98 peat land fires in Kalimantan that caused emissions estimated to represent 13-40% of global emissions originating from fossil fuels during that period [68].

Reconciling plantation expansion with emissions reduction

One option to expand plantations and meet emission reduction targets in Indonesia would be to concentrate new plantations on degraded, deforested land, of which c. 23 million ha in critical condition were mapped across Indonesia in 2006 [69]. Planting such 'degraded lands' has proven to be a challenge, however, due to the scarcity of land meeting an ecologically and socially sound definition of degraded, and the fact that much deforested land is in fact under some form of management by local communities.

Given the much higher total carbon storage (emission reduction potential) of forests on peat (Table 1), and lower opportunity cost of foregoing peatland development, limiting further conversion of peat would seem a preferred means to reconcile economic growth and emissions reduction. Indeed, the Indonesian government recently expressed this view [70]; Norway has made it a pre-condition of its $US1 billion offer [23]; and peatlands, despite their lesser extent than mineral areas (Table 1), have drawn the majority of REDD project investments, with 11 of 17 site-based carbon projects in Sumatra and Kalimantan on peat, equal to 1.69 million (56%) of the estimated 3.06 million ha of REDD projects across Indonesia (see Additional File 2: Datafile_2.pdf).

Unexpected outcomes for biodiversity

Tropical lowland forests on peat or mineral soils are priority areas for biodiversity conservation, yet are typically underrepresented in protected area networks relative to upland habitats [72]. Greater protection of Indonesian peatlands under REDD therefore would not only achieve emission reductions, but also help conserve a unique ecosystem that supports specialized aquatic and plant biodiversity [73–76], and provides wilderness habitat for some of Indonesia's most endangered large vertebrates, including Sumatran tigers, Asian elephants, orangutan and false gharial [77–80]. Nevertheless, if REDD is implemented with a disproportionate focus on peat, and Indonesia pursues goals for 19 million ha of new plantations over the next 10 years, then the potential for REDD to promote conservation for the majority of Indonesia's threatened species will not have been realized. Worse yet, REDD could effectively increase pressure to convert lowland mineral forest areas. This will severely limit biodiversity co-benefits of REDD in Indonesia, and risk undermining efforts to conserve biodiversity in the long-term, for three reasons.

First, overall biodiversity levels in peat forest are substantially lower than in lowland forest on mineral soils [81–83], reflecting the water-logged, nutrient-poor status and lower productivity of peat forests [84–86]. Peat forest plant diversity is less than half that of forest on mineral soils (Table 2; see Additional File 1: Datafile_1.xls for original data). Only 21 (15%) of Indonesia's 140 Critically Endangered lowland plant species have been recorded in peat, including three as specialists, compared to 104 (74%) found in lowland forest on mineral soils, 84 as specialists (Table 2; see Additional File 3: Datafile_3.xls for original data). Peat forests also harbour significantly fewer bat species (Table 2) and support lower densities of birds [107], bats and several keystone terrestrial and arboreal vertebrates, though not all (e.g. the orangutan, Table 2).

Table 2 Biodiversity attributes of lowland tropical forest (<500 m a.s.l.) on peat and mineral soil substrates in Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia

Second, biogeographically distinct sub-types of lowland forest on mineral soils are under-represented in Indonesia's protected area network [108, 109], and many existing protected areas remain threatened by illegal logging, conversion to agriculture and fires [110, 111].

Third, according to 2008 data, c. 5.4 million ha of remaining lowland mineral forest in Kalimantan (25% of the total) is zoned for conversion to non-forest agricultural uses, such as oil palm (Table 1). A further c. 12.4 million ha (58%) is zoned as production forest, which can be legally converted to fiber plantations. Combined, more than 80% of remaining species-rich lowland forest on mineral soils in Kalimantan (c. 17.8 million ha) is eligible for conversion.

There is a risk that preferential targeting of carbon-dense peatland under REDD will worsen long-term prospects for biodiversity conservation in Indonesia by intensifying pressures to establish plantations in forested mineral soil areas that offer lower emission reduction potential (Table 1) but support richer biodiversity and higher concentrations of threatened species (Table 2). This problem is not unique to Indonesia [19]. Similar unintended consequences from REDD could intensify pressure on relatively low-carbon, floristically-rich cerrado ecosystems suitable for soy expansion in Brazil, and logged forests throughout the tropics, which store less carbon, but not necessarily less biodiversity than their unlogged counterparts [112, 113].

Safeguarding biodiversity co-benefits of REDD

Despite meaningful progress made at COP 15 toward developing a REDD framework, it remains unclear whether and how biodiversity will be treated within REDD. A properly structured market mechanism could, in theory, promote more equal balance of REDD interventions across ecosystems with different biodiversity attributes and threat levels (see example of an auction based system in 8). In the short-term, however, such an approach would likely gain traction only in voluntary carbon markets (e.g., Gold Standard emission credits of the CCBA carbon standard, [114]), and such markets are currently too limited to have global impact [115].

Instead, we believe that a regulatory approach will be required to ensure REDD delivers substantial long-term biodiversity co-benefits in tropical countries. We make three recommendations for regulation to be effective:

Recommendation 1

Countries must prepare their own explicit national targets for ecosystem and species protection across the full range of native ecosystem types and biogeographic sub-regions (where applicable). Where such plans already exist - for example, to meet commitments under the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) - they must be re-evaluated, updated and revised in a transparent manner, preferably in accordance with methods approved by the UNFCCC (e.g. following [116]).

Recommendation 2

Using these targets, gap analyses should be conducted to identify ecosystem types currently under-represented in the protected area network (or within degraded protected areas that have lost their conservation value) and new areas required for priority species that have insufficient habitat to maintain large viable populations. Recent work by [109] for Sumatra provides a useful model to evaluate ecosystem representation.

Recommendation 3

With co-financing from REDD to offset opportunity costs of foregone (or restricted) development, results from the above can be used to redefine acceptable land-use practices within priority areas needed to fill biodiversity conservation gaps. Examples might include: (i) re-classifying land use status of forested areas slated for conversion to non-conversion forest uses; (ii) restricting silvicultural practices in specific production forest areas to reduce impacts and maintain high biodiversity value; or (iii) re-assigning forested areas of exceptional importance for strict protection as parks or nature reserves.

If such a national planning process were made a pre-requisite for multi-lateral and bi-lateral REDD funding, and REDD payments linked not only to verified emission reductions but also to biodiversity co-benefits, then net positive impacts on biodiversity would be ensured, and the negative potential impacts we describe would be reduced. A target-based approach also respects the sovereignty of countries to prepare their own targets, and fulfils objectives of the CBD, both for recipient (tropical) countries and donor (developed) nations who are signatories to the convention.

Conclusion

Implementing REDD to optimize biodiversity co-benefits involves trade-offs with emissions reduction and cost. At a global scale, planning REDD interventions to meet biodiversity targets, rather than maximize avoided emissions, increases estimated cost only slightly [10]. Further study is required to understand cost impacts at sub-national scales where REDD will be implemented. Spatially explicit methods are being developed to make systematic comparison among alternative land use scenarios for meeting biodiversity targets [117] and can be readily adapted to incorporate emission reduction potentials or other socio-political targets [118].

Protecting tropical forests is a good idea for mitigating global climate change and conserving globally threatened biodiversity. The devil, however, is in the details: scientists, citizens and government must work closely to determine where REDD funds should be spent to achieve an acceptable balance between emission reductions from forest and enhanced long-term biodiversity conservation.

References

  1. Metz B, Davidson O, Bosch P, Dave R, Meyer L, (eds): Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. In Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2007.

  2. van der Werf GR, Morton DC, RS DeFries, Olivier JGJ, Kasibhatla PS, Jackson RB, Collatz GJ, Randerson JT: CO 2 emissions from forest loss. Nature Geoscience 2009, 2: 737–738. 10.1038/ngeo671

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Laurance W: A new initiative to use carbon trading for tropical forest conservation. Biotropica 2007, 39: 20–24. 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00229.x

    Google Scholar 

  4. IUCN: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 20102.[http://www.iucnredlist.org] Downloaded on 15 August 2010.

  5. Grainger A, Boucher DH, Frumhoff PC, Laurance WF, Lovejoy T, McNeely J, Niekisch M, Raven P, Sodhi NS, Venter O, Pimm SL: Biodiversity and REDD at Copenhagen. Current Biology 2009, 19: R974-R976. 10.1016/j.cub.2009.10.001

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. PEACE: Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies.A report prepared by the World Bank, Department of International Development (DFID] and PT Pelangi Energi Abadi Citra Enviro (PEACE); 2007, 1–90. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf]

    Google Scholar 

  7. Gurney KR, Raymond L: Targeting deforestation rates in climate change policy: a "Preservation Pathway" approach. Carbon Balance and Management 2008, 3: 2. 10.1186/1750-0680-3-2

    Google Scholar 

  8. Obersteiner M, Huettner MM, Kraxner F, McCallum I, Aoki K, Bottcher H, Fritz S, Gusti M, Havlik P, Kindermann G, Rametsteiner E, Reyers B: On fair, effective and efficient REDD mechanism design. Carbon Balance and Management 2009, 4: 11. 10.1186/1750-0680-4-11

    Google Scholar 

  9. Bekessy SA, Wintle BA: Using carbon investment to grow the biodiversity bank. Conservation Biology 2008, 22: 510–513. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00943.x

    Google Scholar 

  10. Venter O, Laurance WF, Iwamura T, Wilson KA, Fuller RA, Possingham HP: Harnessing carbon payments to protect biodiversity. Science 2009, 326: 1368. 10.1126/science.1180289

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Strassburg BBN, Kelly A, Balmford A, Davies RG, Gibbs HK, Lovett A, Miles L, Orme CDL, Price J, Turner RK, Rodrigues ASL: Global congruence of carbon storage and biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. Conservation Letters 2010, 3: 98–105. 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00092.x

    Google Scholar 

  12. UNFCCC: Copenhagen accord. FCCC/CP/2009/L.7.United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC], Bonn, Germany; [http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/l07.pdf]

  13. Venter O, Meijaard E, Possingham H, Dennis R, Sheil D, Wich S, Hovani L, Wilson K: Carbon payments as a safeguard for threatened tropical mammals. Conservation Letters 2009, 2: 123–129. 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00059.x

    Google Scholar 

  14. Ebeling J, Yasué M: Generating carbon finance through avoided deforestation and its potential to create climatic, conservation and human development benefits. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 2008, 363: 1917–1924. 10.1098/rstb.2007.0029

    Google Scholar 

  15. Miles L, Kapos V: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation: global land-use implications. Science 2008, 320: 1454–1455. 10.1126/science.1155358

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Stickler CM, Nepstad D, Coe MT, McGrath DG, Rodrigues HO, Walker WS, Soares-Filho BS, Davidson EA: The potential ecological costs and co-benefits of REDD: a critical review and case study from the Amazon region. Global change Biology 2009, 15: 2803–2824. 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02109.x

    Google Scholar 

  17. ATBC and STE: Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation and the Society for Tropical Ecology: The Marburg Declaration. Marburg, Germany; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  18. International Monetary Fund: World Economic Outlook Database.2010. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/index.aspx]

    Google Scholar 

  19. Obidzinski K, Chaudhury M: Transition to timber plantation based forestry in Indonesia: towards a feasible new policy. International Forestry Review 2009, 2: 79–87. 10.1505/ifor.11.1.79

    Google Scholar 

  20. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup: Delegasi RI: menuju industri kelapa sawit yang berkelanjutan. Press Release; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Post Jakarta: 18 million hectares of land for palm oil.2009. [http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/12/02/indonesia-allocates-18-million-hectares-land-palm-oil.html]

    Google Scholar 

  22. Jatzo F: Indonesia cutting emissions by up to 41 per cent: How? East Asia Forum 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  23. LOI: Letter of Intent between the Government of the Kingdom of Norway and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia on "Cooperation on reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation".2010. [http://www.forestsclimatechange.org/fileadmin/photos/Norway-Indonesia-LoI.pdf]

    Google Scholar 

  24. Madeira EM: REDD in Design: Assessment of Planned First Generation Activities in Indonesia to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD). RFF Discussion Paper 09–49, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Sills E, Madeira EM, Sunderlin WD, Wertz-Kanounnikoff S: The evolving landscape of REDD+ projects. Edited by: Angelsen A, Brockhaus M, Kanninen M, Sills E, Sunderlin WD, Wertz-Kanounnikoff S. Realising REDD+: National strategy and policy options. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia; 2009:265–280.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Jarvis A, Reuter HI, Nelson A, Guevara E: Hole-filled seamless SRTM data V4, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).2008. [http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org]

    Google Scholar 

  27. Wahyunto S, Ritung , Subagjo H: Maps of Area of Peatland Distribution and Carbon Content in Sumatera, 1990–2002. Wetlands International-Indonesia Programme & Wildlife Habitat Canada (WHC). Reproduced within Interactive Atlas of Indonesia's Forests (CD-ROM), World Resources Institute: Washington, DC; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Wahyunto S, Ritung , Subagjo H: Map of Peatland Distribution Area and Carbon Content in Kalimantan, 2000–2002. Wetlands International-Indonesia Programme & Wildlife Habitat Canada (WHC). Reproduced within Interactive Atlas of Indonesia's Forests (CD-ROM), World Resources Institute: Washington, DC; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Wahyunto , Heryanto Bambang, Bekti Hasyim, Widiastuti Fitri: Maps of Peatland Distribution, Area and Carbon Content in Papua, 2000–2001 Wetlands International-Indonesia Programme & Wildlife Habitat Canada (WHC). Reproduced within Interactive Atlas of Indonesia's Forests (CD-ROM), World Resources Institute: Washington, DC; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Lawrence D: Erosion of tree diversity during 200 years of shifting cultivation in Bornean rain forest. Ecological Applications 2004, 14: 1855–1869. 10.1890/03-5321

    Google Scholar 

  31. Webb CO: Seedling ecology and tree diversity in a Bornean rain forest. PhD Thesis, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA;

  32. Asdak C, Jarvis PG, Gardingen PV: Modelling rainfall interception in unlogged and logged forest areas of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 1998, 2: 211–220. 10.5194/hess-2-211-1998

    Google Scholar 

  33. Wilkie P, Argent G, Cambell E, Saridan A: The diversity of 15 ha of lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, Central Kalimantan. Biodiversity and Conservation 2004, 13: 695–708. 10.1023/B:BIOC.0000011721.04879.79

    Google Scholar 

  34. Mirmanto E, Proctor J, Green J, Nagy L, Suriantata : Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization in a lowland evergreen rainforest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 1999, 354: 1825–1829. 10.1098/rstb.1999.0524

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Ashton PS: Ecological studies in the mixed dipterocarp forests of Brunei State. Oxford Forestry Memoirs 25; 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Davies SJ, Becker P: Floristic composition and stand structure of mixed dipterocarp and heath forests in Brunei Darussalam. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 1996, 8: 542–569.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Proctor J, Anderson JM, Chai P, Vallack HW: Ecological Studies in Four Contrasting Lowland Rain Forests in Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak: I. Forest Environment, Structure and Floristics. Journal of Ecology 1983, 1: 237–260.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Newbery DM, Campbell EJF, Proctor J, Still MJ: Primary lowland dipterocarp forest at Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia. Species composition and patterns in the understorey. Vegetatio 1996, 122: 193–220. 10.1007/BF00044700

    Google Scholar 

  39. Laumonier Y, Edin A, Kanninen M, Munandar AW: Landscape-scale variation in the structure and biomass of the hill dipterocarp forest of Sumatra: Implications for carbon stock assessments. Forest Ecology and Management 2010, 250: 505–513. 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.11.007

    Google Scholar 

  40. Yamakura T, Hagihara A, Sukardjo S, Ogawa H: Aboveground biomass of tropical rain forest stands in Indonesian Borneo. Vegetatio 1986, 68: 71–82.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Fox JED: A Handbook to Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve. Sabah Forest Record No. 9. Borneo Literature Bureau, Kuching. Sabah Forest Department; 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Paoli GD, Curran LM, Slik JWF: Soil nutrients affect spatial patterns of aboveground biomass and emergent tree density in southwestern Borneo. Oecologia 2008, 155: 287–299. 10.1007/s00442-007-0906-9

    Google Scholar 

  43. Lasco RD: Forest carbon budgets in Southeast Asia following harvesting and land cover change. Science in China (Series C) 2002, 45: 55–64.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Hairiah KSM, Sitmopul M, van Noordwick, Palm C: Carbon stocks of tropical land use systems as part of the global C balance; effects of forest conversion and options for 'clean development' activities. Alternatives to Slash and Burn (ASB) Lecture Note 4a, International Center for Research in Agroforestry, Southeast Asian Regional Research Programme, Bogor, Indonesia;

  45. Jaya A, Siregar UJ, Massijaya MY: Biomass content and biodiversity of peat swamp forest under various land cover conditions. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland Management: Wise Use of Tropical Peatland: 14–15 July 2009; Bogor 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Waldes N, Page SE: Forest structure and tree diversity of a peat swamp forest in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland: Peatlands for People - Natural Resource Functions and Sustainable Management. Edited by: Rieley JO, Page SE. BBPT and Indonesian Peat Association; 2002:16–22.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Rahayu S, Lusiana B, van Noordwick M: Above ground carbon stock assessment for various land use systems in Nunukan, East Kalimantan. Edited by: Lusiana B, van Noordwick M, Rahayu S. Carbon Stock Monitoring in Nunukan, East Kalimantan: A spatial and modelling approach. World Agroforestry Center, Southeast Asia, Bogor, Indonesia; 2005:21–34.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Ludang Y, Palangka Jaya H: Biomass and carbon content in tropical forest of Central Kalimantan. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation 2007, 2: 7–12.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Diemont WH, Nabuurs GJ, Rieley JO, Rijksen HD: Climate change and management of tropical peatlands as a carbon reservoir. Edited by: Rieley JO, Page SE. Biodiversity and Sustainability of Tropical Peatlands. Samara Publishing, Cardigan, U.K; 1997:363–368.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Brown S, Iverson LR, Prasad A, Liu D: Geographical distributions of carbon in biomass and soils of tropical Asian forests. Geocarta International 1993, 4: 45–59. 10.1080/10106049309354429

    Google Scholar 

  51. Page SE, Banks CJ, Rieley JO: Tropical peatlands: distribution, extent and carbon storage - uncertainties and knowledge gaps. Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland: carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use: 27–29 August 2007; Yogyakarta 2007, 19–24.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Agus F: Environmental risks of farming on peat land. Proceedings of International Workshop on Post Tsunami Soil Management: 1–2 July 2008; Bogor, Indonesia 2008, 65–74.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Jaenicke J, Rieley JO, Mott C, Kimman P, Siegert F: Determination of the amount of carbon stored in Indonesian peatlands. Geoderma 2009, 147: 151–158. 10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.08.008

    Google Scholar 

  54. Melling L, Hatano R, Goh KJ: Soil CO2 flux from three ecosystems in tropical peatland of Sarawak, Malaysia. Tellus 2005, 57B: 1–11.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Verchot LV, Petkova E, Obidzinski K, Atmadja S, Yuliani EL, Dermawan A, Murdiyarso D, Amira S: Reducing forestry emissions in Indonesia. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Dewi S, Khasanah N, Rahayu S, Ekadinata A, van Noordwijk M: Carbon Footprint of Indonesian Palm Oil Production: a Pilot Study. Bogor, Indonesia. World Agroforestry Centre - ICRAF, SEA Regional Office; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Brinkmann : Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Palm Oil Production: Literature review and proposals from the RSPO Working Group on Greenhouse Gases Final report, 9 October 2009.

  58. Agus F, Runtunuwu E, June T, Susanti E, Komara H, Syahbuddin H, Las I, van Noordwijk M: Carbon dioxide emission in land use transitions to plantation. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian 2009, 28: 119–126.

    Google Scholar 

  59. DNPI: Dewan Nasional Perubahan Iklim Indonesia: Indonesia Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve.Jakarta; 2010. [http://www.dnpi.go.id/report/DNPI-Media-Kit/reports/indonesia-ghg_abatement_cost_curve/Indonesia_ghg_cost_curve_english.pdf]

    Google Scholar 

  60. Hooijer A, Silvius M, Wösten H, Page S: PEAT-CO2, Assessment of CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in SE Asia. Delft Hydraulics report Q3943 (2006); 2006:1–41.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Hooijer A, Page S, Canadell JG, Silvius M, Kwadijk J, Wosten H, Jauhiainen J: Current and future CO 2 emissions from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia. Biogeosciences 2010, 7: 1505–1514. 10.5194/bg-7-1505-2010

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Andriesse JP: Nature and Management of Tropical Peat Soils. FAO Soils Bulletin, 59. Rome; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Holmes D: Indonesia: Where Have All the Forests Gone? Environment and Social Development, East Asia and Pacific Region Discussion Paper. World Bank, Washington, DC; 2002:1–52.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Mutert E, Fairhurst TH, von Uexkull HR: Agronomic management of oil palms on deep peat. Better Crops International 1999, 13: 22–27.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Sargeant HJ: Vegetation Fires in Sumatra, Indonesia Oil Palm Agriculture in the Wetlands of Sumatra. Destruction or Development? European Union and Ministry of Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Miettinen J, Liew SC: Degradation and development of peatlands in Peninsular Malaysia and in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo since 1990. Land Degradation and Development 2010, 21: 285–296.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Herzog T: World Greenhouse Gas Emissions in 2005. WRI Working Paper, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC; 2009:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Page SEF, Siegert JO, Rieley , Boehm HDV, Jaya A, Limin S: The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997. Nature 2002, 420: 61–65. 10.1038/nature01131

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Ministry of Forestry (MoF): Forestry statistics of Indonesia. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Simamora AP: Stop converting peatlands, govt study recommends.The Jakarta Post, Jakarta; 2010. [http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/01/18/stop-converting-peatlands-govt-study-recommends.html] 18 January 2010

    Google Scholar 

  71. Gaveau DLA, Wich S, Epting J, Juhn D, Kanninen M, Leader-Williams N: The future of forests and orangutans (Pongo abelii) in Sumatra: predicting impacts of oil palm plantations, road construction, and mechanisms for reducing carbon emissions from deforestation. Volume 4. Environmental Research Letters; 2009:11.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Joppa LN, Pfaff A: High and far: biases in the location of protected areas. PLoS ONE 2009, 4: e8273. 10.1371/journal.pone.0008273

    Google Scholar 

  73. Ng PKL, Tay JB, Lim KKP: Diversity and conservation of blackwater fishes in Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in the North Selangor peat swamp forest. Hydrobiologia 1994, 285: 203–218. 10.1007/BF00005667

    Google Scholar 

  74. Kottelat M, Whitten T: Freshwater biodiversity in Asia: with special reference to fish. World Bank Technical Paper No 343 World Bank, Washington DC; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Page SE, Rieley JO, Doody K, Hodgson S, Husson S, Jenkins P, Morrogh-Bernard H, Otway S, Wilshaw S: Biodiversity of tropical peat swamp forest: A case study of animal diversity in the Sungai Sebangau catchment of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Tropical peatlands. Edited by: Rieley JO, Page SE. Cardigan: Samara Publishing Limited; 1997:231–242.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Wikramanayake E, Dinerstein E, Loucks JC, Olson MD, Morrison J, Lamoreux J, McKnight M, Heda P: Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific. A Conservation Assessment. USA: Island Press; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Meijaard E: The importance of swamp forest for the conservation of orang utans ( Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus ) in Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Biodiversity, Environmental Importance and Sustainability of Tropical Peat and Peatlands. Edited by: Page SE, Rieley JO. Samara Publishing Limited; 1997:243–254.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Bezuijen M, Webb GJW, Hartoyo P, Samedi : Peat swamp forest and the false gharial Tomistoma schlegelii (Crocodilia, Reptilia) in the Merang River, eastern Sumatra, Indonesia. Oryx 2001, 35: 301–307.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Uryu Y, et al.: Deforestation, degradation, biodiversity loss and CO 2 emission in Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia. WWF Technical Report, Jakarta, Indonesia; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Husson SJ, Wich SA, Marshall AJ, Dennis RD, Ancrenaz M, Brassey R, Gumal M, Hearn AJ, Meijaard E, Simorangkir T, Singleton I: Orangutan distribution, density, abundance and impacts of disturbance. In Orangutans: Geographic variation in behavioral ecology and conservation. Edited by: Wich SA, Utami S, Mitra Setia T, van Schaik CP. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2009:77–96.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Whitmore TC: Tropical rain forests of the Far East. 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  82. IUCN: The conservation atlas of tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. London: Macmillan; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Ashton PS: Conservation of Borneo biodiversity: do small lowland parks have a role, or are big inland sanctuaries sufficient? Brunei as an example. Biodiversity and Conservation 2009, 19: 343–356. 10.1007/s10531-009-9717-0

    Google Scholar 

  84. Janzen DH: Tropical blackwater rivers, animals, and mast fruiting by the Dipterocarpaceae. Biotropica 1974, 6: 69–103. 10.2307/2989823

    Google Scholar 

  85. Mirmanto E, Polosokan R: Preliminary study on growth, mortality and recruitment of tree species in peat swamp forest at Tanjung Puting National Park, Central Kalimantan. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peat Lands. Edited by: Rieley JO, Banks CJ, Ragjagukguk B. Hokkaido University & Indonesian Institute of Sciences: Bogor, Indonesia; 1999:165–172.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Nishimua TB, Suzuki E, Kohyama T, Tsuyuzaki S: Mortality and growth of trees in peat-swamp and heath forests in Central Kalimantan after severe drought. Plant Ecology 2006, 193: 301–313.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Purwaningsih , Yusuf R: Vegetation Analysis of Suaq Belimbing peat swamp Forest, Gunung Leuser National Park-South Aceh. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peat Lands. Hokkaido University & Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Bogor, Indonesia; 1999:275–282.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Siregar M, Sambas EN: Composition of Peat Swamp Forest in Mensemat-Sambas, West Kalimnatan. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peat Lands. Hokkaido University & Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Bogor, Indonesia; 1999:153–164.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Saribi AH, Riswan SS: Peat swamp forest in Nyaru Menteng Arboretum, Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia: Its tree species diversity and secondary succession. Paper presented at the Seminar on Tropical Ecology held by Japanese Society of Tropical Ecology, 21–22 June 1997, Shiga, Japan

  90. Yamada I: Peat swamp forests in Borneo and Sumatra - Original state, development and disasters during the past 50 years with a proposal for future eco-resource management. Tropics 2006, 15: 329–336. 10.3759/tropics.15.329

    Google Scholar 

  91. Santosa Y, Kartono AP, Muin A: Pendugaan potensi dan studi keanekaragaman jenis vegetasi di calon lokasi pelepas-liaran orang utan di Kabupaten Seruyan, Propinsi Kalimantan Tengah. Report for Orangutan Foundation International and Infinite Earth Rimba Raya Project; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Anderson JAR: The ecology and forest types of the peat swamp forests of Sarawak and Brunei in relation to their silviculture. PhD Dissertation, Edinburgh, England; 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Anderson JAR: The flora of the peat swamps of Sarawak and Brunei, including a catalogue of all recorded species of flowering plants, ferns and fern allies. The Gardens Bulletin, Singapore 1963, 20: 131–228.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Anderson JAR: The tropical peat swamps of western Malaysia. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen and Moot: Ecosystems of the World 4B, Elsevier, Amsterdam; 1983:181–199.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Cannon C, Leighton M: Tree species distributions across five habitats in a Bornean rain forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 2004, 15: 257–266. 10.1111/j.1654-1103.2004.tb02260.x

    Google Scholar 

  96. Eichhorn KAO, Slik JWF: The plant community of Sungai Wain, East Kalimantan, Indonesia: Phytogeographical status and local variation. Blumea Supplement 2006, 18: 15–35.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Miyagi Y, Tagawa H, Suzuki E, Wirawan N, Oka NP: Phytosociological study on the vegetation of Kutai National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Memorial Kagoshima University Research Center, Occasional Papers 1988, 14: 51–62.

    Google Scholar 

  98. van Valkenburg JLCH: Non-Timber Forest Products of East Kalimantan. Potentials for Sustainable Use. Tropenbos Series 16. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Kitayama K: An altitudinal transect study of the vegetation on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Vegetatio 1992, 102: 149–171. 10.1007/BF00044731

    Google Scholar 

  100. Pendry CA, Proctor J: Altitudinal zonation of rain forest on Bukit Belalang, Brunei: soils, forest structure and floristics. Journal of Tropical Ecology 1997, 13: 221–241. 10.1017/S0266467400010427

    Google Scholar 

  101. Ashton PS: Dipterocarpaceae. Volume 9. Flora Malesiana; 1982. Series 1

    Google Scholar 

  102. Newman MF, Burgess PF, Whitmore TC: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. In Borneo Island Medium and Heavy Hardwoods: Dipterocarpus, Drybalanops, Hopea, Shorea (balau/selangan batu), Upuna. United Kingdom: The Charlesworth Group; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Newman MF, Burgess PF, Whitmore TC: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. In Borneo Island Light Hardwoods: Anisoptera, Parashorea, Shorea (red, white and yellow meranti). United Kingdom: The Charlesworth Group; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Laumonier Y: Geobotany 22. In The vegetation and physiography of Sumatra. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Simbolon H, Mirmanto E: Checklist of plant species in the peat swamp forests of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical peatlands, 22–23 November 1999; Bogor. University of Hokkaido & Indonesian Institute of Sciences; 2000:179–190.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Purwaningsih : Sebaran ekologi jenis-jenis Dipterocarpaceae di Indonesia. Biodiversitas 2004, 5: 89–95.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Gaither JC: Understorey avifauna of a Bornean peat swamp forest: Is it depauperate? Wilson Bulletin 1994, 106: 381–390.

    Google Scholar 

  108. MacKinnon J: Protected areas systems review of the Indo-Malayan Realm. The Asian Bureau for Conservation and World Conservation Monitoring Center; Cambridge: Call Printers Limited; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Laumonier Y, Uryu Y, Stüwe M, Budiman A, Setiabudi B, Hadian O: Eco-floristic sectors and deforestation threats in Sumatra: identifying new conservation area network priorities for ecosystem-based land use planning. Biodiversity and Conservation 2010, 19: 1153–1174. 10.1007/s10531-010-9784-2

    Google Scholar 

  110. Curran LM, Trigg SN, McDonald AK, Astiani D, Hardiono YM, Siregar P, Caniago I, Kasischke E: Lowland forest loss in protected areas of Indonesian Borneo. Science 2004, 303: 1000–1003. 10.1126/science.1091714

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Gaveau DLA, Epting J, Lyne O, Linkie M, Kumara I, Kanninen M, Leader-Williams N: Evaluating whether protected areas reduce tropical deforestation in Sumatra. Journal of Biogeography 2009, 11: 2165–2175. 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02147.x

    Google Scholar 

  112. Cannon CH, Peart DR, Leighton M: Tree species diversity in commercially logged Bornean rainforest. Science 1998, 281: 1366–1368. 10.1126/science.281.5381.1366

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Meijaard E, Sheil D, Nasi R, Augeri D, Rosenbaum B, Iskandar D, Setyawati T, Lammertink MJ, Rachmatika I, Wong A, Soehartono T, Stanley S, O'Brien T Life after logging: reconciling wildlife conservation and production forestry in Indonesian Borneo CIFOR, WCS and UNESCO, Bogor, Indonesia; 2005.

  114. CCBA: Climate, Community & Biodiversity Project Design Standards, Second Edition CCBA.Arlington, VA; 2008, 1–50. [http://www.climate-standards.org]

    Google Scholar 

  115. Karousakis K: Promoting biodiversity co-benefits in REDD. OECD Publishing; 2010:1–26. OECD Environment Working Papers, No 11

    Google Scholar 

  116. Pressey RL, Humphries CJ, Margules CR: Beyond opportunism-key principles for systematic reserve selection. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1993, 8: 124–128.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Wilson K, Meijaard E, Drummond S, Grantham H, Boitani L, Catullo G, Christie L, Dennis R, Dutton I, Falcucci A, Maiorano L, Possingham H, Rondinini C, Turner W, Venter O, Watts M: Conserving biodiversity in production landscapes. Ecological Applications 2010, 20: 1721–1732. 10.1890/09-1051.1

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Ghazoul J, Butler RA, Mateo-Vega J, Koh LP: REDD: a reckoning of environment and development implications. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2010, 25: 396–402. 10.1016/j.tree.2010.03.005

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

GDP, PLW and BY thank Aisyah Sileuw and staff at Daemeter Consulting for support of activities leading to the manuscript. Susan Page is acknowledged for sharing records on tree species in peat swamp. MJS was supported by a Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellowship and wishes to thank Sephy Noerfahmy, Dorothea Pio and Tigga Kingston for sharing their bat data for biodiversity analyses. AJM thanks Universitas Tanjungpura, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, the State Ministry of Research and Technology, the Directorate General for Nature Conservation and the Gunung Palung National Park Bureau for research permission; and J. William Fulbright Foundation, Louis Leakey Foundation, Department of Anthropology at Harvard University, and University of California at Davis for financial support. We acknowledge Cam Webb, Antonia Gorog and Lex Hovani for useful discussions on this subject and three anonymous reviewers for constructive feedback.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gary D Paoli.

Additional information

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

GDP, PLW, MJS and AJM contributed and analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript; EM, KO and BY participated in writing and the development of ideas; AT, AR, AM, BP, NW, SH and LD contributed data on biomass, plant species, emissions and/or land cover; FS contributed biomass data and the computation of Fisher's alpha for plants. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Electronic supplementary material

13021_2010_52_MOESM1_ESM.XLS

Additional file 1:Species richness, biomass and emission parameters for lowland forest on peat and mineral soils in Indonesia, Brunei and Malaysia. This file provides raw data and citations for information presented in tables and text of the manuscript comparing biodiversity, biomass and emission characteristics of lowland forest on peat and mineral soil substrates. (XLS 114 KB)

13021_2010_52_MOESM2_ESM.PDF

Additional file 2:Summary of REDD projects, programs and policy initiatives in Kalimantan and Sumatra, Indonesia. This file provides a summary of REDD activities in Sumatra and Kalimantan, including name, location, supporting institution(s), approximate size (ha) of areas covered by the activities and substrate (peat or mineral soils). (PDF 100 KB)

13021_2010_52_MOESM3_ESM.XLS

Additional file 3:Summary of dipterocarp tree species recorded in lowland forest on peat soils in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sarawak and Sabah, and their conservation status on the IUCN Red List. This file provides a tabular summary of published and unpublished records for dipterocarp species recorded in at least one peat swamp forest site. Individual citations, conservation status under ICUN and some additional notes are provided for each species. (XLS 36 KB)

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Paoli, G.D., Wells, P.L., Meijaard, E. et al. Biodiversity Conservation in the REDD. Carbon Balance Manage 5, 7 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-0680-5-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-0680-5-7

Keywords